PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION

FINDINGS FROM THE LITERATURE AND INVENTORIES

Prevention and intervention strategies were reviewed both in the context of current literature, and inventories of existing programs and services by the four Centres. A compilation of the regional inventories is presented in Appendix III. The review indicates that for the most part, interventions and prevention strategies are not gender-specific. The exception is those programs that deal with teen pregnancy and parenting, with the majority being directed at adolescent girls. Further, most programs are framed as interventions, and through this avenue, communicate prevention strategies. Only a few of the reviewed programs present prevention in the context of promoting children's well-being.

Analysis of the inventories compiled by the different centres reveals that existing programs and services cluster around the following issues: (1) early childhood intervention in the form of parenting programs, adolescent pregnancy, prenatal care, and counselling; (2) children/adolescents who have witnessed or experienced violence in the family; (3) family counselling and prevention/intervention for families; (4) recreational programs for youth; (5) one-to-one counselling and drop-in support groups and shelters; (6) crisis intervention services; (7) conflict resolution programs, many of which also operate under the rubric of "youth crime"; (8) programs that facilitate egalitarian interactions; (9) self-esteem programs; (10) dating violence programs; (11) services for street youth; and (12) school-based programs which cover a host of issues, such as bullying.

However, many of these programs are reactive rather than proactive. Further, many school-based programs are implemented in isolation from other programs and educational initiatives. Community-based prevention and intervention programs tend to be similarly isolated, and operate on a project-by-project basis without continuity and with an over­reliance on voluntary labour. A cohesive, well-orchestrated anti-violence program which is gender-specific and integrates both service providers (including health, justice, and education) as well as communities, is lacking or seemingly not apparent in overviews of existing programs.

Programs which deal with violence as it is mediated by homophobia, racism, classism, and ableism are scarce. Just as most programs tend to be gender-neutral, existing programs tend not to account for the specificities of the experiences of the interlocking effects of race, class, ability, sexual orientation, and gender. Instead the realities and needs of Aboriginal, immigrant/refugee, racialized girls, young lesbians, girls with disabilities, girls in foster care, and poor or working class girls tend to be collapsed and universalized into a homogenous category of "girls" or "children."

Successful early intervention programs for at-risk teenagers or adult mothers begin during pregnancy or shortly after childbirth, and constitute long-term interventions. They are multi-dimensional, involving home services, parental education, and child-care services. They are aimed at developing parenting skills as well as general life-skills (employment qualifications, further education, etc.). These programs generally operate under the rubric of "community services."

Most programs for sexual abuse are directed at children, whereas most programs for physical abuse and neglect are directed toward parents. Programs dealing with psychological abuse involve both parents and children. Few of these programs are directed specifically at girls, and even fewer consider the differential socialization of girls and boys. Nor have these programs been extensively or systematically evaluated. Most are self­evaluated in response to funders' demands.

It is apparent from the literature, that sexual or physical abuse programs need to incorporate a multidimensional perspective on child abuse and neglect, taking into consideration the impact of abuse on childhood development and children's ability to comprehend terms and concepts, interpret situations, and evaluate their safety. Programs that embrace a holistic perspective would be most beneficial to children between the ages of 7 and 12 years. However, the differential impact of programs on boys and girls needs to be carefully considered. The literature reviewed suggests that some prevention programs actually increase girls' fear of violence and responsibility. Girls with a history of sexual victimization respond differently to such programs, as compared with those who do not have such a history (Hanson and Gidycz, 1993).

A variety of school-based prevention programs have been introduced over the past few years. These programs tend to address myths about violence, victim-blaming attitudes, effects of date and acquaintance rape on victims, and resources that are available to victims. However, in many cases these programs assume a point of departure which stresses improving the communication skills of both genders, empowering girls to say "no," and teaching boys how to respond in these situations. They operate under the premise that if both genders are taught the right communication skills, the incidence of date rape would decline dramatically. Such a perspective fails to take into consideration socio­cultural factors, socio-political values, or the gendered nature of sexualized violence. In other words, they do not address the reality of male violence and the patriarchal beliefs and attitudes that underpin it. Nor do they tend to address the continuum of violence. Existing research points to the failure of such programs in changing male attitudes toward woman/girl abuse (Bohner and Schwarz, 1996; Gilbert, et al., 1991).

More recent primary prevention programs tend to incorporate a contextual analysis, highlighting the social causes contributing to violence against girls and young women. However, these programs tend to employ a gender-neutral perspective, i.e., they do not emphasize that perpetrators are usually males. They also tend to focus on issues of self­esteem, conflict resolution, and empathy. Studies note that girls tend toward empathic behaviour which impedes them from disclosing abuse and reinforces feelings of guilt and shame (Gilligan, 1982). The focus on conflict resolution in some programs is also problematic. As Gamache and Snapp (1995) note, violence does not typically stem from conflict. Instead of emphasizing the abuse of power and control, the conflict resolution model creates an illusory level playing field for all participants. The power and control that boys have over girls is completely ignored.

The literature underscores the need for differential, gender-specific violence prevention programs which are multi-dimensional and employ multi-disciplinary approaches. However, the regional inventories reveal a scarcity of such programs.

FINDINGS FROM THE FOCUS GROUPS

Each of the four centres conducted focus groups consisting of service providers, researchers, teachers, and advocates, and girls in its respective region. The BC/Yukon FREDA Centre held 6 focus groups, 2 at each of the following sites: Victoria, Vancouver, and Whitehorse, Yukon. The RESOLVE Tri-provincial Network conducted a total of 6 focus groups with service providers and 2 with girls. Service provider focus groups were held in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, and focus groups with girls were held in Saskatoon, and Winnipeg. The Centre for Research on Violence Against Women and Children in London, Ontario, conducted 5 focus groups with girls at the following sites: Ottawa, Toronto, and London, Ontario. Additionally, 9 focus groups with service providers, community leaders, policy-makers, researchers, and advocates, were conducted in Toronto, London, Thunder Bay, and Huron County, Ontario. In the Atlantic region, 8 focus groups were held, 2 in Newfoundland, 3 in New Brunswick, 2 in Price Edward Island, and 1 in Nova Scotia. A full analysis of the regional focus group results can be found in Appendix II.

Common Themes Across Focus Groups

Girls, service providers, researchers, advocates and community leaders who attended these groups acknowledged the pervasive nature of violence against girls and young women. They noted the absence of gender-specific anti-violence programming, and the lack of safe spaces for girls. Media images and the general devaluation of girls and women, were cited as common factors impacting on the development of identity and self-esteem among girls. Prevention and intervention programs were identified as being inadequate both in terms of their continuity, scope, and approaches. Participants identified the need for programs to be well-funded, to have a broader scope in terms of involving community, parents, aggressors, and victims. The need for ongoing funding for such programs was identified as critical.

Awareness of the range of violence experienced by girls, as well as an understanding of its underpinnings, was identified as a major need by both service providers and girls. Focus group participants revealed that a narrow interpretation of violence informs popular understanding of the issue, as well as the more common approaches to prevention. It was noted that violence tends to be construed as physical abuse, and that sexual harassment and other forms of gender-based violence are often normalized and accepted both by girls and boys. Girls lack the language by which to identify such violence. It was noted that many girls are re-victimized when they disclose abuse. Their concerns and experiences are not treated seriously or considered legitimate by the authorities.

Lack of access to services and outreach to marginalized girls in particular, was a common theme mentioned by focus group participants. There is a critical lack of coordination and information sharing among service providers.

The sections below detail the common themes raised by focus group participants.

Programs and Services

• Very few programs are aimed at prevention. Most are aimed at intervention. Further, since prevention often takes place through intervention, service providers and experts argued against the use of these two mutually exclusive definitions. Instead, they suggested using a "harms reduction" conceptual framework.
• The lack of continued funding for prevention programs results in a built-in capacity for failure for many of these programs. This is due primarily to the intermittent implementation of these programs which is contingent on funding; the over-use of voluntary labour, or the reliance of the program on the presence of one core person; the tailoring of programs to capitalize on different but related issues in order to get funding; and, the piecemeal funding afforded to anti-violence programs where a multiplicity of organizations apply on a project basis to one funder and are allocated minimal amounts. Participants observed that programs aimed at young offenders, and applications couched in terms of crime prevention are given more substantial funding.
• There is a lack of coordination and information exchange among service providers. Service providers were often not aware of other programs being implemented in their regions. Partnerships and sharing of resources would alleviate this gap in knowledge. This lack of coordination is also manifested in the confusion surrounding the use of different terminologies about violence.
• Follow-up to prevention programs is lacking. Rather, most are implemented on a sporadic basis, and end upon completion of the program. Programs are not tied into existing community resources that can provide the necessary follow-up.
• Gender-specific programs are desperately needed in schools. There are very few such programs, and most fail to embrace a critical perspective. There is a tendency to present such programs in a gender-neutral manner, or as correctives for miscommunication.
• Positive role models, both male and female are needed. Boys and men also need to get involved in the struggle to end gender-based violence. However, the educational approaches for boys have to be different, and must be based on a recognition of the differential impact of gender-based socialization practices.
• Prevention programs need to be introduced at every level throughout the developmental cycle. Arbitrary age categories, i.e., 6-12, 12-18, cannot be applied, and when applied, tend to be divisive. Prevention efforts must be directed at the pre-natal, kindergarten, grade school, high school and university levels.
• There is a concentration of school-based prevention programs. However, there are no or few resources within schools to deal with disclosures, and to provide counselling and support.
• Programs need to be made more accessible to girls. More outreach is needed, particularly to those groups of girls that are marginalized because of race, class, sexual orientation, disability and geographic location. The needs and realities of street­involved girls also have to be incorporated into prevention programs.
• Programs need to embrace a more holistic perspective, taking into account the differential realities of girls from marginalized communities, and using a socio-cultural analysis of the causes, consequences, and contributing factors of violence.
• A major systemic obstacle to preventing violence against girls and young women, is the current climate of conservatism and backlash. Public denial of gender-based violence has also influenced funders and their willingness to contribute to programs that are framed within a gender-specific and critical paradigm.
• Lack of confidentiality as a consequence of age-related criteria poses a major challenge to girls who are trying to obtain services. Service providers are caught between trying to find adequate resources and meeting the age-related eligibility criteria imposed by social, medical, and legal services.

• Girls experience a continuum of violence, ranging from sexual harassment to rape. Societal acceptance of violence was identified as a major issue. Violence has become normalized. Self-esteem, self-image, and peer pressure are significant issues of concern to girls. Self harm (suicide, eating disorders, etc.), and the internalization of stereotypes and negative images of girls, have create a "girl-poisoning environment." Depression in girls is a symptom of this environment, as is girl-on-girl violence. Girls talked about having to "watch their backs," and living in a "war zone."
• Media images were identified across the country as impacting on girls' sense of self-esteem, body-image, and gender expectations. Focus group participants recommended that efforts be encouraged to challenge these images through media literacy, advocacy, the availability of positive role models and mentors, and through artistic expression.
• Girls overwhelmingly identified the need for "safe" and girl-specific spaces in schools, shelters, and services. Such spaces were viewed as being critical for reasons of safety, positive development of self, and identity formation.
• Girls expressed the need for: more gender-specific support groups; self-defence strategies; for boys and men to be educated about violence; systems for disclosing violence that are more accessible and equitable; evidence of justice in dealing with perpetrators; and public education.
• Isolation of girls from rural communities and other marginalized communities (by virtue of race, class, sexual orientation, disabilities), was noted as a key issue and constitutes a formidable barrier to accessing services.
• For Aboriginal girls, the loss of spirit and culture, racism, and lack of a holistic approach to violence prevention, were identified as major issues. Larger social issues including oppression, lack of employment and educational opportunities, child-care, and residential abuse were also cited.
• There is a high degree of cynicism among girls with respect to their ability to access justice from various agencies within the criminal justice system. Girls reported having their experiences trivialized and dismissed when they approached different "systems." They also reported experiences of being re-victimized by the justice system.
• Girls are confronted with a double-bind message concerning sexual abuse/assault. On the one hand, they are encouraged to disclose such abuse, and on the other hand, they are threatened with retaliation if they choose to do so. Peer pressure is one mechanism by which girls are silenced. The other is the dismissive attitudes they encounter when disclosing abuse to family and others.
• Girls who manifest violent behaviours tend to have either witnessed violence at home, or have personally experienced sexual abuse and/or sexual assault. This is one of the reasons why early intervention/prevention is so critical.
• Girls need to be involved in the planning of prevention strategies and programs. Programs based on research which examines the attitudes, skills, and beliefs of girls who have survived abuse and who resist violence are needed. Where girls have been involved in the development and intervention of programs, the success rate of these programs has been high.
• Poverty and substance abuse were other factors identified by focus group participants as contributing to a negative environment for girls. Growing up in poverty reduces the life-chances for girls, as does substance abuse (by themselves, or by parents/guardians). Poverty was also cited as contributing to the sexual exploitation of girls.
• Focus group participants identified education about violence as an urgent need. Girls need to be taught how to define their experiences of violence, where to seek support and assistance, and how to deal with the impact of such violence. Issues of power and control, both in relationships and on a systemic level, greatly affect the lives of girls. The misuse of power by others, and the powerlessness experienced by girls, were identified as key issues.
• Sexuality and sexual orientation were identified as significant issues for girls, as was teen pregnancy, and sexually transmittable diseases. The vulnerability of girls to coercive sexual relationships and the sexual exploitation of marginalized and street­involved girls was highlighted.
• For many girls, age and consent issues posed a major barrier to accessing services. Caught between the various age-related categories for eligibility for programs, girls often find themselves too old to be "children," and too young to be considered adult "women."
• Girls are unaware of their rights. Education regarding human rights would provide a necessary corrective to this situation.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the findings of this research reveal that violence against girls is common and endemic in Canadian society. That such violence is becoming normalized and increasingly accepted as a way of life is indicative of the need for urgent action. Canadian girls are subjected to a continuum of violence, ranging from sexist remarks, sexual harassment, exclusionary attitudes and behaviours, to rape, battering, and murder. Safe gender-specific spaces, programs, and services for girls are necessary and more effective in the long-term.

The research conducted by four of the Alliance of the Five Research Centres on Violence (AFRCV) reveals that: (1) there are few violence prevention initiatives in place; (2) existing initiatives are under-funded, sporadic, and intermittent; (3) there is lack of coordination among programs and an integration of programs with existing services; (4) very few programs are gender-specific despite their need and demonstrated success of such programs; and (5) that the dichotomy between violence prevention and intervention is illusory. A more effective model would begin from the perspective of "harms reduction." Current violence prevention strategies are concentrated in high schools and aimed at teens. A more holistic approach is required if the issue of violence is to be dealt with in an adequate manner. Strategies should begin at an early age and involve all parties. More importantly, current strategies need to employ a critical, gender-based perspective in locating and defining the causes and consequences of violence.

The research also reveals that effective programs need to be gender-specific as the outcomes and impacts vary for boys and girls. The differential gender-role socialization of girls and boys needs to be recognized and used as a point of departure for the development of programs and services. As well, the definition of violence requires broadening to include all of the subtle and explicit forms of violence to which girls are currently subjected. A critical, holistic, gender-based, and anti-exclusionary perspective is necessary. This would allow for the inclusion of other forms of violence, and for the relevance of programs to marginalized girls.

The issues confronting marginalized girls demand immediate attention. There is a paucity of Canadian research in this area. Hence, the needs of marginalized girls do not figure prominently in the literature, nor in the descriptions of programs and services outlined in the inventories. Nevertheless, the particular socio-structural conditions affecting the communities to which these girls belong, highlights the potential of their enhanced vulnerability to violence. This is a direct consequence of the interlocking nature of various forms of oppression and their cumulative impact on shaping the life-chances and experiences of marginalized girls.

The girls who participated in focus groups across the country voiced similar concerns. They identified media images as major influences, shaping their definitions of themselves and their gender, as well as expectations regarding normative, sanctioned behaviours and appearances. In order to counter the detrimental impact of media messages, it is critical to integrate media literacy and advocacy initiatives, and to encourage girls and young women to develop their own forms of alternative media and self-expression.

The devaluation of girls and women underpins the gender-based violence directed at them. However, girls and young women tend to internalize their responses which then manifest in forms that are highly detrimental to their growth and their potential. Eating disorders, substance abuse, self-harm, attempts at suicide, and loss of self-esteem are but a few of the myriad of forms through which responses to violence are internalized. Combined with racism, homophobia, classism, isolation and ableism, this devaluation can be extreme and can result in self-hatred and the ultimate destruction of self. Socio-structural factors such as poverty, unemployment, and restrictive immigration laws exacerbate the situation, forcing many girls to flee abusive homes and communities, and to seek refuge and relief on the streets where they are subjected to further abuse.

Girls and service providers hold little hope for change. Yet in order to begin the task of dismantling gender-based violence, primary and secondary intervention programs are a necessity. That some programs have been successful can be evidenced from existing research. In order to render current programs more effective, their scope, time-span, and sustainability has to be ensured. Further, programs have to be grounded in research and the lived experience of girls. However, given the historically entrenched nature of violence against women and girls, any form of prevention would, by necessity, have to employ multi-dimensional and multi-disciplinary approaches.

RECOMMENDATIONS

• A clear, coordinated government mandate on violence prevention which embraces a gender specific and culturally sensitive perspective, is urgently required. Solutions and programs cannot afford to be compartmentalized, or operated on a piece-meal basis.
• Prevention and intervention need to be conceptualized within a "harms reduction" model as intervention often leads to prevention, and the two are not mutually exclusive categories in social life.
• There is a clear need for research and programs which are gender-specific, and which take as their point of departure, the reality that socialization practices differ for girls and boys. Girls respond differently to violence.
• There is an urgent need for safe spaces for girls. This includes "girls only" spaces within schools, as well as gender-specific shelters and services for street involved and high risk girls. Additionally, viable gender-specific exiting mechanisms need to be identified and implemented for street-involved girls, and girls who are sexually exploited. Sexually exploited girls must be given viable alternatives, economic compensation and employment training and opportunities.
• There needs to be a recognition by government and society at large regarding the oppression of Aboriginal and other cultural groups, and the need for culture-specific programming within a critical gender-based and structural perspective. This will enable a clearer definition and understanding of violence as it is manifested both within and against these communities.
• Violence needs to be understood and conceptualized as operating on two interconnected levels: the level of the individual within a family, and the societal level. There needs to be a recognition of the contribution of larger social forces such as racism, homophobia, poverty, unemployment, geographic and social isolation, and their intersection with partriarchal beliefs and values, which translate and shape the lived reality of girls and women.
• The impact of municipal, provincial, territorial, and federal policies on structuring and shaping the lives of girls in contemporary society needs to be examined. For instance, policies which have a direct impact on homeless girls, such as panhandling laws, need to be analyzed and documented. Similarly, the impact of immigration laws on facilitating the trafficking of girls as sex trade workers, domestic workers, and child brides, needs to be investigated.
• Psychological abuse needs to be defined both in the literature and in practice. Associated behaviours must be identified and taught to girls as well as service providers. Girls need to be taught the language to define abuse, and to be alerted to the resources that are available in their communities.
• There is an urgent need for more services, particularly to those communities that are isolated by virtue of geographic distance, cultural factors, and economic conditions. More emphasis needs to be placed on outreach strategies aimed at these groups.
• Services need to be coordinated, and service providers encouraged to obtain a gender­based and socio-structural analysis of the contributing factors and effects of violence.
• Anti-violence education must involve school administrators, teachers, parents, and community agencies. In order to be effective, such programs not only have to be gender-specific, but must also be integrated with other educational and community initiatives, and address connections between homophobia, racism, and sexism.
• Programs which have demonstrated success should be universalized and implemented in other geographic locations.
• Systematic evaluation is required and should be encouraged. Programs should be provided with funds to have such evaluations conducted.
• Institutional disregard of harassment gives implicit permission for it to continue unabated and publicly in schools, thus trivializing girls' experience, normalizing violence, and encouraging boys to move along the continuum of aggressive behaviours toward battering and rape. Intervention programs in schools therefore, need to be gender-specific, and schools need to publicly demonstrate their commitment by developing policies that outline the non-acceptance of sexual harassment and other forms of violence.
• Harms reduction strategies which are grounded in a critical socio-political analysis of violence are needed. Equal opportunity tactics do not work when gendered power imbalances exist. Rather, equity models that explore policies and practices which address systemic barriers need to be implemented.
• A community development approach needs to be implemented in order to ensure ownership of the issue by community groups. Ownership helps to alleviate mistrust and alienation.
• Incremental planning of programs needs to be used in order to facilitate formal evaluations at all stages of the program. Thus, stage one outcomes influence the planning and implementation of stage two, etc. This type of planning offers an opportunity for community participation.
• Family violence and dating violence prevention programs have tended to describe abuse without providing the necessary skills for the development of healthy relationships. There is a need for the dissemination of information about healthy relationships, and the portrayal of positive role models.
• Raising awareness about violence continues to be a priority. However, the definition of violence used needs to be broadened to include the continuum of violent behaviours that impact upon and affect the lives of girls, boys, and entire communities.
• The devaluation of women as it is communicated through the popular media needs to be challenged at every level. Despite existing policies and legislation, the media continue to portray women in ways that are unrealistic, and that have a detrimental impact on girls and young women. Media literacy and media advocacy initiatives need to be supported by all levels of government.
• Age and consent issues need to be clarified and researched with regard to their impact on the accessibility of services for girls.
• Communities should be funded to conduct safety audits. This would involve all sectors of the community, raise awareness about violence, and provide girls and women with critical information.
• Funding needs to be long-term and committed, not project-specific, if it is to make a difference. All types of violence that affect girls have been proven to be cyclical and in order to break that cycle, it is necessary to have ongoing programming. Long-term, ongoing programs covering the full spectrum of prevention through harms reduction, as well as various levels of intervention, are needed to make a significant difference.
• There is a paucity of research on violence as it affects Canadian girls. Additional research which examines the broad spectrum of violence (state-level violence, homophobia, racism, classism, ableism) needs to be encouraged.
• Health Canada's National Clearinghouse on Family Violence should be utilized as the site for the collating and dissemination of current academic and community-based research on violence against girls and models for harms reduction.

These recommendations do not fully reflect the range of concerns that were articulated in focus groups across the country. However, they do suggest areas of future investigation and immediate action.

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