Any kind of separation of the influences of rurality on woman
abuse is analytic at best. As a socio-cultural and geographical
environment, rurality provides a context that informs the ways
in which woman abuse is articulated, understood and responded
to in specific ways. This study demonstrates how particular aspects
of rurality intensify the experiences of woman abuse for
survivors. Moreover, the results reinforce the findings of existing
studies by highlighting the ways in which attributes of rurality
such as the small size of communities and the distant location
from services and resources impact on women living with abuse.
In fact, it can be argued, based on the findings of this study,
that the two factors that impact most directly on rural women's
experiences of coping with or leaving violent relationships are
the socio-structural features of rurality - namely the small size
of the communities - and their geographic distances from urban
centres.
SOCIAL COHESION AND CONFORMITY
Small communities are characterized by a small population and
a fair degree of homogeneity - both in terms of socio-cultural
normative values and beliefs, as well as the particular demographic
make-up of the population. These two aspects intersect and reinforce
one another, resulting in the specific character of the area or
town. Geographic location enhances the boundary maintenance of
these communities by affording them a defined area which they
can call their own, thereby fostering a sense of identification
and belonging (Beaver, 1986). This is not dissimilar to the sense
of belonging that subcultural marginalized groups experience in
their own communities, albeit on a symbolic and identificational
level, which enables them to counter the exclusion they experience
from the mainstream of society. However, within rural communities,
the status quo's maintenance and exercise of power is more intense
as a result of the size of the community (which makes sanctions
possible and effective), and the relative homogeneity of the
population.(11)
BACKLASH AND DENIAL
In such a context then, women's subordinate status seems more
apparent and its legitimation through patriarchal values has the
appearance of being more common-place and taken-for-granted.
Thus, any challenges to these values evoke swift reprisals through
backlash and denial. However, once again, the intensity of the
backlash and denial draws its power from the bounded nature of
the community, thus contributing to a situation whereby the only
way in which to directly resist woman abuse (i.e., by the act
of leaving an abusive relationship) becomes equivalent to the
act of leaving the community itself. This study has demonstrated
how women were forced to leave or had to contemplate leaving their
own communities upon leaving abusive relationships. Similarly,
where women have organized against woman abuse, their efforts
have been met with dismissal, denial, trivialization, and anger
from their communities.
AVAILABILITY OF INFORMATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS OF WOMAN ABUSE
The small size and bounded nature of the community also impact
on the construction and range of information and actions that
are considered to be valid. In this vein, it is interesting to
note how environmental concerns, as one of the interviewees noted,
have become popular and many communities have embraced advocacy
around these issues. However, the patriarchal nature of the larger
society, which appears to be more cohesive in rural communities,
makes information about woman abuse appear to be non-valid or
not requiring the kind of widespread mobilization that has happened
around environmental issues or in the movement against drunk driving.
It could be argued that this is a result of the general lack
of information about woman abuse in the popular media. However,
women's groups have been at the forefront of increasing awareness
and knowledge of woman abuse - even within small communities -
for at least three decades. Aside from this, woman abuse has
received considerable public attention and been the focus of numerous
government initiatives. Nevertheless, within rural communities,
as in most urban areas, aside from the groups directly involving
in organizing against violence, there seems to be a general lack
of will in giving priority to issues concerning woman abuse.
In rural communities the resistance to widespread community mobilization
may itself be an expression of backlash.
HOMOGENEITY AND LACK OF DIVERSITY
Without essentializing rural communities as inherently negative
and ultra-conservative, it should also be noted that the range
and diversity of groups and the sources and kinds of information
that are extant in urban communities are absent in rural areas.
Thus, the patriarchal values embodied in the larger society assume
a more concentrated form in rural areas by virtue of the lack
of any socio-cultural space or legitimacy for alternatives. These
include alternatives to heterosexuality, ethnocentrism, racism,
and classism. This is not to suggest that the latter are not
present or widely accepted in the larger society. Rather, there
are more alternatives and subcultural formations in the larger
society which allow for some degree of respite from the experience
of marginalization.
RURAL PATRIARCHY
Patriarchal values, attitudes and beliefs intersect with rural
factors such as geographic isolation and socio-cultural homogeneity
resulting in a potent force whose power cannot be contested as
widely (from diverse standpoints) or as strongly as can occur
in urban settings. In the latter context, opposition can be mounted
from numerous social locations and can involve diverse coalitions
of groups. Thus, it would seem that the notion of rural patriarchy,
as defined by Websdale (1998), can be enhanced to also signify
the absence of range and diversity of socio-cultural and communicative
strategies that can be mobilized to challenge patriarchy in rural
communities. And it is the lack and viability of these alternatives
that renders women more vulnerable to violence in rural settings
and that consolidates the power of patriarchy. This study found
that patriarchal values and beliefs were as prevalent in the research
community as in urban settings. However, the findings suggest
that the articulation and impact of patriarchal ideology in rural
areas is more forceful.
GEOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ISOLATION
This research demonstrates that above all else, women in violent
relationships live in extreme fear for their lives and the welfare
of their children. Geographic isolation enhances this fear as
there are few witnesses who can attest to the violence and intervene
in emergency situations. Geographic isolation also impacts directly
on these women's ability to physically leave and/or to seek assistance
and services. Further, abusive partners often deliberately move
women and children to isolated locations in order to cut ties
with families and friends. Social isolation is thus an outcome
of geography, but is rendered more effectual by abusive spouses'
control and domination of women's physical and social mobility.
The dynamics of abuse reinforce this isolation by generating
feelings of loneliness and self-blame for women. Whereas in an
urban environment, women might seek assistance from neighbours
or support groups, in rural areas the options are limited. Moreover,
in rural areas the very homogeneity and bounded nature of the
community can amplify women's feelings of shame and self-blame
through denial and woman-blaming. Faced with extremely limited
options, women have little choice or wherewithal to leave. The
very fact that they do leave is a sign of their incredible strength.
ECONOMIC CONCERNS
The lack of viable alternatives also constrains women's economic
realities. Rural settings have limited employment opportunities
for both women and men, and, increasingly, these opportunities
are being drastically reduced as a result of the recessionary
climate and decline of resource-extraction economies prevalent
in many small communities. The lack of job skills and training
programs in rural areas exacerbates the situation for women who
have lived, and often been forced to live, in remote and socially
isolated areas within strict gender-ascribed roles as subordinate
nurturers and care-takers. At the same time, constructions of
masculinity that resonate with a rugged existence, as exemplified
by distance, terrain, and type of industry in the area, are preferred
and in turn reinforce gender-ascribed roles as normative. Hence,
while economic pressures can impact on woman abuse, they are not
the sole reason for its existence or legitimation but rather work
in tandem with patriarchal values and expectations.
LACK AND INADEQUACY OF SERVICES
The small size of rural communities also contributes to the lack
of services available and accessible to residents. Government
allocation of funding and programs is often based on population
size. The rationale for this is based on economies of scale and
the argument that a higher percentage of people are in need in
urban areas than in rural communities. This, combined with the
lack of investment, on the part of local industries in social
programs and services, increases the vulnerability of those who
require these services. When services are not available in the
community, residents have to surmount the additional barrier of
transportation, and the financial burden accruing from it, in
order to access services located elsewhere. For women survivors
of abuse who are already in dire financial straits, this is a
significant barrier, particularly if they live in communities
that are not serviced by any form of local transportation. Added
to this is the kind of response they receive from service providers.
As this study has shown, the lack of services provided by empathic
and knowledgeable staff was defined as a major shortcoming of
existing institutional services. The reliance and heavy use of
volunteers to provide critical services was also found to be problematic
for service delivery and its impact for women survivors. Better
and coordinated services were identified as critical needs for
rural women survivors of violence.
LACK OF ANONYMITY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
The lack of anonymity and confidentiality was a significant finding
in this study. Rural communities, by virtue of their small size
and population, do not offer the kind of anonymity that women
can find in urban areas. Since the degree of familiarity and
social conformity is high in rural areas, women who disclose abuse
or who utilize existing services are vulnerable to being stigmatized
and ostracized, especially if their spouses hold positions of
power within these communities. For those delivering services,
the familiarity with clientele and others in the community means
that confidentiality is likely to be breached. Gossip, as this
study pointed out, is rampant in small communities (as in any
small group of people). However, its impact on rural woman abuse
is to make women survivors feel discredited, not believed, and
publicly humiliated. Gossip and other forms of community sanctions
often work to deter women from seeking support or involving service
providers in the issue.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE
The implications of the lack of anonymity and confidentiality in rural communities for service delivery in the area of justice (police, legal services, courts) were highlighted in the findings. Large distances, lack of knowledge about the geography of the area, use of police scanners to identify residences where abuse has occurred, and familiarity with abusers and survivors, were all shown to impact on rural woman abuse. In addition, patriarchal values and attitudes infuse police and court response to women survivors of abuse, thereby exacerbating the situation and contributing to women's reluctance to use these services. Finally, the small size of rural communities makes it difficult for women to avoid their abusers. Interestingly, the findings suggest that stalking is a persistent issue facing women survivors of abuse in rural areas. The implications for implementation of programs centred on a restorative justice approach in such a setting include: a pronounced risk of safety for the woman; a more immediate and pervasive context of power imbalance between the woman and her abuser; continued social and geographic isolation; and, stigmatization and pressure to conform to community norms.
This study found strong support for more punitive measures to
be levied on abusers, with the rationale that woman abuse is a
crime and hence needs to be treated as such. While incarceration
was seen as a limited option, there was strong support articulated
for removing the abusers from the community and for the implementation
of programs for abusive men. The data further suggest that there
is little confidence in the current treatment of the issue by
the criminal justice system. Women survivors were not seen as
being treated fairly and equally. Policies such as the BC Violence
Against Women in Relationships (VAWIR) which incorporates mandatory
charging were viewed positively. However, the lack of consistent
implementation of this Policy was raised as an issue of concern.
Restraining and no contact orders were not found to be effective
because they are not reliably enforced. This problem is compounded
by rurality because of the small size of police detachments which
have jurisdiction over large areas of land. In addition, the
presence of guns in rural areas has substantial implications for
the safety of women and children living with violence. Better
policing and implementation of orders and policies is a necessity
to ensure the safety and survival of women and children.
ENABLING AGENTS
In contrast to the Criminal Justice System, it was found that
women-centred services, transition houses, and Victim Assistance
Services were highly effective in providing information, support,
and advocacy for survivors. As this study demonstrates, in many
instances these services were critical in enabling women to name
the abuse and to develop safety measures in order to cope with
and leave abusive relationships. However, these services are
significantly under-funded and staffed by volunteers. In addition,
women-centred services are scarce in rural areas. For rural women,
this often translates into a lack of such services, long waiting
lists, and inadequate support, all of which can result in heightening
their vulnerability to repeated instances of violence.
This study found that rural women tend to rely on networks of
friends and family for support and assistance in dealing with
violence. In the context of inadequate services, lack of information
about services, and the barriers that exist in accessing institutionalized
services, the reliance on friends and families is expected. Nevertheless,
as the study findings show, abusers deliberately isolate (socially
and geographically) their partners from support networks. This
renders women in abusive relationships more vulnerable and at
risk. Lack of access or inadequacy of women-centred support services
heightens this risk.
Rural communities are idealized as being "havens" of sanctuary from the heartlessness of urban society. This myth serves to promote community denial of and responsibility for the issue of woman abuse. But, for many rural inhabitants the attachment to and appreciation of the land is a significant factor. If leaving an abusive relationship means leaving one's home, friends, family and land for an uncertain and, more likely, impoverished future, what choice is there for rural women survivors of violence?
In conclusion, it is apparent that many factors interweave and
intersect to intensify the experiences of woman abuse for women
in rural communities. These factors include: geographic isolation;
distance from services; lack and inadequacy of services; lack
of alternate voices and safe places; lack of information about
woman abuse; lack of adequate and inexpensive transportation;
and, lack of funding for effective community-based services.
In addition, the present research identified factors that further
endanger women's lives. These include: the availability of guns;
lack of enforcement of policies and orders; lack of coordinated
services and intervention strategies; and lack of emergency intervention
services.
DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Directions for future research would include an examination of
the following issues:
Participants in this study proposed the following recommendations
which are grouped according to specific areas: the legal system;
social services; health; education; and recommendations applicable
to all service delivery agencies. Recommendations for the community
were also identified by participants and these are applicable
to community-based service organizations. Finally, participants
articulated recommendations that are directed to women living
with abuse in rural communities. These recommendations are detailed
below.
LEGAL SERVICES
Recommendations regarding the legal system emphasized the need
for the system to take women's safety and protection as the main
point of departure. In addition, participants underlined the
need for women to be treated with respect and to have their experiences
treated seriously.
Courts and Legal Aid
1. Widespread distribution of information in plain and multiple languages about Legal Aid services, child support payments, women's rights, property issues, custody and access issues, and coverage under legal aid for divorce.
2. Enactment of stronger laws for woman abuse and better enforcement of these laws. This is based on asking the courts to impose stronger measures of accountability for abusers and to increase the protection of woman survivors.
3. Women survivors' experiences to be regarded as valid and accorded respect.
4. Reduction in waiting time for court dates, as well as the time-span between charges and court appearances. This would help to reduce the danger to survivors from spousal reprisals.
5. Better training of court personnel and judges with respect to woman abuse.
6. Increased representation in the judiciary of women who are knowledgeable about woman abuse.
7. Enactment of laws that will protect women from abusers, threats of deportation, and continued harassment, and to ensure that women do not have to leave their homes, but rather that abusers are required to leave.
8. Increased local court and legal aid services and expansion of criteria for services to be covered by legal aid.
9. Formation of a council of women consisting of survivors and advocates to advise judges and provide experientially grounded expertise in issues concerning woman abuse.
Police
1. More effective enforcement of policies and orders.
2. Implementation of strategies that focus on the protection of women.
3. Women's experiences to be treated seriously and respectfully.
4. Calls regarding woman abuse to be treated as a priority and responded to immediately.
5. The abuser be removed from the scene immediately and not be allowed to return until the woman has had some time to gather her belongings and find a safe place for herself and her children.
6. Stereotypic assumptions and comments not to be made by officers about women who have experienced violence.
7. Increased representation of women police officers.
8. Training of police officers in the dynamics of abuse.
9. Increased police presence in rural communities.
10. Woman abuse to be treated as a crime.
11. Placement of an abuser in a "house" or "home" with a mandated anger management program.
12. Creation of a 1-800 number to report woman abuse.
Victim Assistance Services
1. Victim Assistance workers should be available to accompany women to court and to the police.
2. Victim Assistance workers to act as liaisons between women survivors and judges, as well as other criminal justice system personnel.
3. Victim Assistance workers to accompany police to the site of violence and to provide information about services and supports that are available; to act as advocates on behalf of women; and to ensure that women's voices are heard and their experiences treated seriously.
SOCIAL SERVICES, BC MINISTRIES OF HUMAN RESOURCES & CHILDREN AND FAMILIES
1. Widespread distribution of information about social services and welfare benefits in plain and multiple languages.
2. Increased job skills and educational programs for women survivors so as to enable them to become financially independent.
3. Implementation of programs aimed at helping women survivors integrate into the workforce or create their own businesses.
4. Provision of immediate financial aid and emergency assistance to women survivors so that they can leave abusive relationships and establish themselves.
5. Provision of financial assistance or vouchers for child care and transportation in order that women survivors can access other services and programs.
6. Provision of affordable housing and child care.
7. Training of workers in the dynamics of violence so as to ensure a better and more empathic response to survivors.
8. Implementation of a traveling social worker who can visit and provide information to women who are located in rural and remote communities.
9. Provision of immediate social and financial services to women survivors in order to facilitate their exit from the abusive relationship.
10. Assignment of financial aid workers to rural areas or of workers who can service rural communities regularly.
11. Reassessment and eradication of policies that discriminate against women and that endanger women's lives. This is especially applicable to policies concerning child support payments which require women to identify their abusers, thereby increasing the possibility of spousal reprisal.
12. Support rather than apprehension of children.
13. Creation of a women's help-line that could provide all the relevant information to women leaving abusive relationships.
14. Availability of more after-hours and outreach services.
15. Increased drop-in resource centres for women leaving abusive relationships.
HEALTH
1. Establishment of violence centres in rural areas that could provide coordinated health-care services for women survivors of violence.
2. Increased training for physicians and other medical personnel on how to respond to woman abuse.
3. The issue of woman abuse to be prioritized.
GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY-BASED SERVICE DELIVERY AGENCIES AND INSTITUTIONS
1. Require personnel specifically trained in issues concerning woman abuse to interact with and deliver services to survivors.
2. Implement a coordinated emergency response team that could provide information about services and resources and simultaneously ensure the safety of women and children.
3. Create a central agency that would be able to advise women about custody and access, maintenance payments, welfare rights, property rights, and other legal and financial rights or procedures. This should be a one-stop place where women can obtain the information and the services they require.
4. Distribute on a wide scale information concerning services that are available, as well as criteria for eligibility. This information should be produced in plain and multiple languages and distributed in highly frequented places, e.g., Laundromats, schools, community centres, doctors' and dentists' offices, coffee shops. Utilize local media to publicize this information.
5. Organize free workshops in order to provide information on services and criteria for eligibility.
6. Increase paid employment for staff.
7. Implement proactive strategies to integrate women and their families who are isolated.
8. Develop and implement early intervention strategies and programs.
9. Ensure follow-up of cases involving woman abuse.
10. Ensure that there are more women-centred services and counselling programs available.
11. Increase funding for programs, staff, and resources that can help women survivors.
EDUCATION
1. Implementation of gender equality in schools.
2. Integration of violence prevention curricula in schools.
Recommendations for Public Education within Communities
1. Raise public awareness.
2. Acknowledge that woman abuse exists.
3. Create forums in which woman abuse could be discussed.
4. Generate campaigns with anti-violence messages.
5. Information and educational materials in plain and multiple languages about woman abuse to be distributed widely.
6. Identify what constitutes abuse and the various signs of abuse.
7. Promote gender equality.
8. Promote egalitarian values in the socialization of children.
9. Increase coverage of violence issues in the news media.
10. Organize coordinated public events around woman abuse.
11. Involve men in the struggle to end violence against women.
12. Organize advocacy groups for women survivors.
13. Encourage involvement and intervention by all sectors of the community.
14. Honour women's strength and survival and their experiences of abuse.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WOMEN IN ABUSIVE RELATIONSHIPS
1. If possible, leave the abusive relationship.
2. Develop supportive networks and identify good friends.
3. Develop safety plans and emergency kits (e.g., clothes, money, phone numbers).
4. Research available resources in the area.
5. Learn to anticipate and identify patterns of abusive behaviour.
6. Ask others in the community to communicate any warning signals.
7. Call available services such as crisis lines and transition houses.
8. Do not remain in the relationship because of children.
9. Do not minimize or justify the abuse.
10. Do not cling to the hope that the abuser will change.
11. Remember that you are not alone.
11. It
can be argued that the
increasing migration of people into rural areas is diluting this
homogeneity, and thereby weakening the cohesion of the community.
Nevertheless, the status quo still maintains its formal and informal
power in these communities. And its tolerance or intolerance of certain
behaviours can be an effective force of social control. Many
participants in this study emphasized how their communities tolerate
woman abuse.